1936: Stalin’s failed “thaw”
The vast majority of our compatriots, at least least interested in the history of the USSR, if you ask them which year of Russian history they associate with the name "Stalin", without hesitation, blurts out: "Thirty-seventh!" No, someone, of course, will remember the years of the war, linking the Supreme with the Victory won by our country. Fortunately, there are more and more of them today ... However, for many people, the symbol of the great and terrible reign of Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin is 1937, which marked the peak of the so-called "repressions", and, in fact, the cleansing of the Soviet Union from internal enemies.
It so happened that through the efforts of first Khrushchev and his hangers-on, and then their direct followers - the “perestroika” democrats, a completely different milestone remained completely silent and, moreover, mercilessly slandered: the year 1936. But this was, firstly, the moment of the greatest flourishing of freedom and democracy in the USSR (and there is no need to grin skeptically - that is how it was!), And, secondly, a turning point from which the country's history could go according to a different scenario . Why didn’t this happen? Why was this difficult year so significant? I will try, as far as possible, to answer these questions in detail below. And we will begin with a story about exactly what the Soviet Union approached this date with.
Before the start of World War II, food cards were introduced twice in the country. The first time - back in the RSFSR, in the era of the so-called "war communism", when they tried to strangle the victorious revolution not only by war, but also by hunger. The card system was canceled in 1921, after the end of the Civil and the transition to the so-called new economic policyremaining in history under the acronym "NEP". However, after ten years, the cards had to be returned. The country was tormented by severe crop failures, the collectivization carried out in the village at the first stage did not contribute to food abundance at all. However, the situation with other goods was not in the best way either - the industry, which had been almost destroyed, still had to be restored, and the West at that time pursued a policy of severe sanctions against our country, not wanting to acquire anything but grain.
Nevertheless, on the first day of 1935, breadcards were canceled, and by the fall of that year, the distribution of all other food products, and then manufactured goods, became an anachronism. The country revived its economy, which became truly popular - without Western loans and investments, at the cost of exorbitant stress, heavy sacrifices and hard labor, exclusively on its own forces and means. During the years of the first five-year plans (1928-1932 and 1933-1937), the USSR showed the whole world a truly fantastic breakthrough in all areas - from economics to education and science. It is clear that no one would dare call the standard of living of a huge number of inhabitants of the country luxurious or rich. However, it is worth remembering, first of all, that for the vast majority of citizens of the USSR, life in it was many times better than before the revolution.
However, not for everyone ... Having proclaimed universal “freedom, equality and brotherhood” in 1917, the Bolsheviks did not forget about those who, in their opinion, were unworthy of these high principles. The category of "deprived people" was born the very next year and was legislatively enshrined in the first Constitution of the RSFSR. This word is funny only on the lips of the immortal Ostap Bender. In fact, the meaning behind him was terrible. In theory, these were the names of those who did not have the right to elect and be elected in the Land of Soviets. In addition to mentally ill persons and criminals, former officers fell into this category, first of all, police and gendarmerie, priests and monks, and at the same time, all persons who “exploit wage labor” and “live on unearned income”. It also automatically included everyone involved in private trade and entrepreneurship (during the NEP), as well as peasants who opposed collectivization.
In fact, in addition to excommunication from suffrage, all “deprived people”, as well as members of their families, were not able to get a normal job, get an education, apply for any social payments and benefits from the state. But taxes were simply brutal! “Lichen” had nothing to dream of settling in Moscow or Leningrad, moreover, he could easily be evicted from a communal apartment, in which then the majority of the urban population lived. If in 1926 this “lower caste” in the USSR included just over a million people, then in the next year it numbered more than three million. And this is with the total population of about 150 million! The process of eliminating this separation of citizens was begun in 1935-1936 with the filing of Stalin. For example, the Cossacks, who had previously been in it, were almost completely removed from the category of "deprived people". However, only the Constitution of 1936 put the point here, to this day bearing the unofficial name of "Stalin".
As a matter of fact, this was already the third basic law of the country, adopted after the revolution - the first appeared in 1918 (RSFSR) and 1924 (USSR). It is impossible not to mention that the "Stalinist" Constitution was in force in the USSR for the longest time - until 1977. This may seem paradoxical to some, but it was she who, at the time of her adoption, was the most democratic fundamental law in the whole world! It is worth starting here, of course, with the fact that all citizens of the USSR, without exception, received voting rights. For comparison, recall that in Germany women were allowed to vote in 1949, in Switzerland in 1959, and in Spain in 1977 in general. The 1936 Constitution not only equalized men and women, it gave absolutely equal rights to literally all citizens of the USSR. Unkind memory "deprived" went into oblivion.
The same document created the supreme legislative body of the Soviet Union - the Supreme Council, which was a bicameral parliament. Until that time, the supreme power was the Congress of Soviets. Also, the right to have their own parliaments was received by everyone up to a single republic that was part of the USSR. The new basic law also significantly improved the judicial system - in addition to professional judges, people's assessors appeared in it, playing the role of “Soviet jury”. However, the main achievements of the new Constitution, which put it higher than similar laws of any other country, were unprecedented never before anywhere colossal social guarantees provided, again, to all citizens without exception.
The right to work and rest (an eight-hour working day was established by law and annual leave paid by the state), free education and free medical care. Universal right to receive pensions and disability benefits. And all this was done! The Constitution also spelled out the rights of Soviet people to personal security and the inviolability of their home, privacy of correspondence, freedom of conscience, assembly, speech and press. Yes, these points were far from always fulfilled and not with regard to all, but they, at least in the Constitution, existed. However, there is every reason to believe that the proclamation of such a wide range of rights and freedoms should be only the beginning of a real democratization of society.
A number of historians argue that Stalin, on whose initiative the open vote in the election of all the institutions of power of the USSR was replaced by a secret one, had the intention to go even further. In all seriousness, he was going to destroy the monopoly of the representatives of the Communist Party, which had already taken shape at that time, to occupy all the highest posts in the Soviet Union, including elected ones. Was it possible? In principle, yes - on one condition ... Iosif Vissarionovich could well make an effort to “move” the party from the levers of real control of the country, first of all, its economy, turning it into an exclusively ideological “superstructure”. We must assume that the "old Bolshevik guard" by that time was already pretty tired of him. “Faithful Leninists”, “fiery revolutionaries”, literally climbing into everything and raising heated discussions on any occasion, and, especially, on issues in which they understood absolutely nothing ... They simply prevented Stalin from building a country, preparing it for the inevitable war with the nazis. To reduce their weight and influence in the state was for him one of the main tasks.
By 1936, the "old party members", in particular the most zealous and violent, were already fairly thinned out. The most dangerous - Trotsky in 1929 managed to push out of the USSR from sin away. Kamenev, Zinoviev and all their “united opposition” are neutralized. We are not talking about any mass repressions yet. Perhaps it seems to Stalin that they will not be needed. However, a paradoxical thing is happening - the idea of “fighting the enemies of the people” turns out to be enthusiastically, almost without exception, the party leaders of the republican, regional, city levels. They are eager to “expose”, “reveal”, and, of course, “burn with a hot iron”! It is understandable - to arrange "purges" and to search for enemies is a much more entertaining, dustless, and, most importantly, promising business than daily hard administrative work.
Moreover - all these characters, striving to fulfill any instructions received "from above", never know the restraint and strive to surpass one another in unlimited official zeal. It is because of their evil efforts that famine was built in 1932 and other similar “excesses” and “distortions” that cost the lives of many, many. Some historians are trying to argue that at the fateful plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, held in February 1937 and, in fact, launched the repressions, Stalin was already planning to destroy as many people as possible. It is unlikely ... The transcripts of speeches at this event rather indicate that Joseph Vissarionovich himself and his closest associates, the same Zhdanov and Molotov, tried to talk about reforms in government that should have arisen from the new Constitution, upcoming changes. And in response they heard, like a carbon copy, written speeches about "the fight against pests and enemies of the people."
Please note - at the same time, Stalin and Vyshinsky rehabilitated those who fell under the infamous 1932 decree “On the Protection of State Property”, which was completely unfairly called the “Three Spikelet Law”. Once stumbled people are rehabilitated and tens of thousands sent to freedom. And the party secretaries of the regional party committees continue to repeat that more needs to be planted and shot. Even more!
Note - at the same time, Stalin did receive more and more information about the party apparatus, the army, other power structures and conspiracies weaving in the higher echelons. The case smacks of a coup — either military KGB or party-military. There are too many disagreeing with his decisions, and, most importantly, seeking to seize power. Tukhachevsky and his entourage is flirting with the Germans, Yagoda is beginning to “turn” the People’s Commissar of Internal Affairs in the wrong direction, Bukharin and Rykov are twisting something incomprehensible ... As a result, Stalin makes his famous speech about the “aggravation of the class struggle”, dedicated, including and issues of “the elimination of Trotskyist and other double-dealing”. By that time, he probably understands that it’s simply impossible in another way. What kind of "thaw" is there ?! The country and the party, the army and the internal affairs bodies need to be saved - and this is not the time for democracy. A war looms on the threshold, and with such leaders the Soviet Union will collapse without it. And the flywheel of “purges” is launched, which first will be untwisted by just those people who are sitting in the hall, and then they will be demolished. For reference, 72 out of 52 people who spoke at that plenum were subsequently repressed ...
The vast majority of them are subsequently rehabilitated and declared innocent and slandered, forgetting at least the role of themselves in the same “purges” that took place earlier. As for innocence ... As the main argument for proving this, the following statements are usually used: “These people were real communists, and therefore simply could not go against the party and the Soviet government!” What are you saying ... I’ll answer with this question: “And what, Gorbachev, Yakovlev, Yeltsin, Kravchuk, Shushkevich, who destroyed not only socialism in the USSR, but the country itself in the 80-90s, were American saboteurs abandoned on a dark night on parachutes ?! ” No, all of them belonged to the party elite of the USSR, and to its higher echelons. And you could!
The repression that began in 1937 was probably not inevitable. And they were pushed towards them by Stalin who was not attributed to him as "a thirst for power" or, especially, "paranoia." The events of 1935-1936 show - most likely, Joseph Vissarionovich saw the development of the situation in a different way. But he did not succeed in continuing the “thaw” that had begun in 1937 — that is why we recall this year in a completely different context.
It so happened that through the efforts of first Khrushchev and his hangers-on, and then their direct followers - the “perestroika” democrats, a completely different milestone remained completely silent and, moreover, mercilessly slandered: the year 1936. But this was, firstly, the moment of the greatest flourishing of freedom and democracy in the USSR (and there is no need to grin skeptically - that is how it was!), And, secondly, a turning point from which the country's history could go according to a different scenario . Why didn’t this happen? Why was this difficult year so significant? I will try, as far as possible, to answer these questions in detail below. And we will begin with a story about exactly what the Soviet Union approached this date with.
Without cards and "deprived"
Before the start of World War II, food cards were introduced twice in the country. The first time - back in the RSFSR, in the era of the so-called "war communism", when they tried to strangle the victorious revolution not only by war, but also by hunger. The card system was canceled in 1921, after the end of the Civil and the transition to the so-called new economic policyremaining in history under the acronym "NEP". However, after ten years, the cards had to be returned. The country was tormented by severe crop failures, the collectivization carried out in the village at the first stage did not contribute to food abundance at all. However, the situation with other goods was not in the best way either - the industry, which had been almost destroyed, still had to be restored, and the West at that time pursued a policy of severe sanctions against our country, not wanting to acquire anything but grain.
Nevertheless, on the first day of 1935, breadcards were canceled, and by the fall of that year, the distribution of all other food products, and then manufactured goods, became an anachronism. The country revived its economy, which became truly popular - without Western loans and investments, at the cost of exorbitant stress, heavy sacrifices and hard labor, exclusively on its own forces and means. During the years of the first five-year plans (1928-1932 and 1933-1937), the USSR showed the whole world a truly fantastic breakthrough in all areas - from economics to education and science. It is clear that no one would dare call the standard of living of a huge number of inhabitants of the country luxurious or rich. However, it is worth remembering, first of all, that for the vast majority of citizens of the USSR, life in it was many times better than before the revolution.
However, not for everyone ... Having proclaimed universal “freedom, equality and brotherhood” in 1917, the Bolsheviks did not forget about those who, in their opinion, were unworthy of these high principles. The category of "deprived people" was born the very next year and was legislatively enshrined in the first Constitution of the RSFSR. This word is funny only on the lips of the immortal Ostap Bender. In fact, the meaning behind him was terrible. In theory, these were the names of those who did not have the right to elect and be elected in the Land of Soviets. In addition to mentally ill persons and criminals, former officers fell into this category, first of all, police and gendarmerie, priests and monks, and at the same time, all persons who “exploit wage labor” and “live on unearned income”. It also automatically included everyone involved in private trade and entrepreneurship (during the NEP), as well as peasants who opposed collectivization.
In fact, in addition to excommunication from suffrage, all “deprived people”, as well as members of their families, were not able to get a normal job, get an education, apply for any social payments and benefits from the state. But taxes were simply brutal! “Lichen” had nothing to dream of settling in Moscow or Leningrad, moreover, he could easily be evicted from a communal apartment, in which then the majority of the urban population lived. If in 1926 this “lower caste” in the USSR included just over a million people, then in the next year it numbered more than three million. And this is with the total population of about 150 million! The process of eliminating this separation of citizens was begun in 1935-1936 with the filing of Stalin. For example, the Cossacks, who had previously been in it, were almost completely removed from the category of "deprived people". However, only the Constitution of 1936 put the point here, to this day bearing the unofficial name of "Stalin".
The most democratic constitution in the world
As a matter of fact, this was already the third basic law of the country, adopted after the revolution - the first appeared in 1918 (RSFSR) and 1924 (USSR). It is impossible not to mention that the "Stalinist" Constitution was in force in the USSR for the longest time - until 1977. This may seem paradoxical to some, but it was she who, at the time of her adoption, was the most democratic fundamental law in the whole world! It is worth starting here, of course, with the fact that all citizens of the USSR, without exception, received voting rights. For comparison, recall that in Germany women were allowed to vote in 1949, in Switzerland in 1959, and in Spain in 1977 in general. The 1936 Constitution not only equalized men and women, it gave absolutely equal rights to literally all citizens of the USSR. Unkind memory "deprived" went into oblivion.
The same document created the supreme legislative body of the Soviet Union - the Supreme Council, which was a bicameral parliament. Until that time, the supreme power was the Congress of Soviets. Also, the right to have their own parliaments was received by everyone up to a single republic that was part of the USSR. The new basic law also significantly improved the judicial system - in addition to professional judges, people's assessors appeared in it, playing the role of “Soviet jury”. However, the main achievements of the new Constitution, which put it higher than similar laws of any other country, were unprecedented never before anywhere colossal social guarantees provided, again, to all citizens without exception.
The right to work and rest (an eight-hour working day was established by law and annual leave paid by the state), free education and free medical care. Universal right to receive pensions and disability benefits. And all this was done! The Constitution also spelled out the rights of Soviet people to personal security and the inviolability of their home, privacy of correspondence, freedom of conscience, assembly, speech and press. Yes, these points were far from always fulfilled and not with regard to all, but they, at least in the Constitution, existed. However, there is every reason to believe that the proclamation of such a wide range of rights and freedoms should be only the beginning of a real democratization of society.
A number of historians argue that Stalin, on whose initiative the open vote in the election of all the institutions of power of the USSR was replaced by a secret one, had the intention to go even further. In all seriousness, he was going to destroy the monopoly of the representatives of the Communist Party, which had already taken shape at that time, to occupy all the highest posts in the Soviet Union, including elected ones. Was it possible? In principle, yes - on one condition ... Iosif Vissarionovich could well make an effort to “move” the party from the levers of real control of the country, first of all, its economy, turning it into an exclusively ideological “superstructure”. We must assume that the "old Bolshevik guard" by that time was already pretty tired of him. “Faithful Leninists”, “fiery revolutionaries”, literally climbing into everything and raising heated discussions on any occasion, and, especially, on issues in which they understood absolutely nothing ... They simply prevented Stalin from building a country, preparing it for the inevitable war with the nazis. To reduce their weight and influence in the state was for him one of the main tasks.
Why did the repression begin
By 1936, the "old party members", in particular the most zealous and violent, were already fairly thinned out. The most dangerous - Trotsky in 1929 managed to push out of the USSR from sin away. Kamenev, Zinoviev and all their “united opposition” are neutralized. We are not talking about any mass repressions yet. Perhaps it seems to Stalin that they will not be needed. However, a paradoxical thing is happening - the idea of “fighting the enemies of the people” turns out to be enthusiastically, almost without exception, the party leaders of the republican, regional, city levels. They are eager to “expose”, “reveal”, and, of course, “burn with a hot iron”! It is understandable - to arrange "purges" and to search for enemies is a much more entertaining, dustless, and, most importantly, promising business than daily hard administrative work.
Moreover - all these characters, striving to fulfill any instructions received "from above", never know the restraint and strive to surpass one another in unlimited official zeal. It is because of their evil efforts that famine was built in 1932 and other similar “excesses” and “distortions” that cost the lives of many, many. Some historians are trying to argue that at the fateful plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, held in February 1937 and, in fact, launched the repressions, Stalin was already planning to destroy as many people as possible. It is unlikely ... The transcripts of speeches at this event rather indicate that Joseph Vissarionovich himself and his closest associates, the same Zhdanov and Molotov, tried to talk about reforms in government that should have arisen from the new Constitution, upcoming changes. And in response they heard, like a carbon copy, written speeches about "the fight against pests and enemies of the people."
Please note - at the same time, Stalin and Vyshinsky rehabilitated those who fell under the infamous 1932 decree “On the Protection of State Property”, which was completely unfairly called the “Three Spikelet Law”. Once stumbled people are rehabilitated and tens of thousands sent to freedom. And the party secretaries of the regional party committees continue to repeat that more needs to be planted and shot. Even more!
Note - at the same time, Stalin did receive more and more information about the party apparatus, the army, other power structures and conspiracies weaving in the higher echelons. The case smacks of a coup — either military KGB or party-military. There are too many disagreeing with his decisions, and, most importantly, seeking to seize power. Tukhachevsky and his entourage is flirting with the Germans, Yagoda is beginning to “turn” the People’s Commissar of Internal Affairs in the wrong direction, Bukharin and Rykov are twisting something incomprehensible ... As a result, Stalin makes his famous speech about the “aggravation of the class struggle”, dedicated, including and issues of “the elimination of Trotskyist and other double-dealing”. By that time, he probably understands that it’s simply impossible in another way. What kind of "thaw" is there ?! The country and the party, the army and the internal affairs bodies need to be saved - and this is not the time for democracy. A war looms on the threshold, and with such leaders the Soviet Union will collapse without it. And the flywheel of “purges” is launched, which first will be untwisted by just those people who are sitting in the hall, and then they will be demolished. For reference, 72 out of 52 people who spoke at that plenum were subsequently repressed ...
The vast majority of them are subsequently rehabilitated and declared innocent and slandered, forgetting at least the role of themselves in the same “purges” that took place earlier. As for innocence ... As the main argument for proving this, the following statements are usually used: “These people were real communists, and therefore simply could not go against the party and the Soviet government!” What are you saying ... I’ll answer with this question: “And what, Gorbachev, Yakovlev, Yeltsin, Kravchuk, Shushkevich, who destroyed not only socialism in the USSR, but the country itself in the 80-90s, were American saboteurs abandoned on a dark night on parachutes ?! ” No, all of them belonged to the party elite of the USSR, and to its higher echelons. And you could!
The repression that began in 1937 was probably not inevitable. And they were pushed towards them by Stalin who was not attributed to him as "a thirst for power" or, especially, "paranoia." The events of 1935-1936 show - most likely, Joseph Vissarionovich saw the development of the situation in a different way. But he did not succeed in continuing the “thaw” that had begun in 1937 — that is why we recall this year in a completely different context.
Information